Articulacy Phonetics: How Sounds are Produced
How
sounds are produced? Sounds, the sounds production and the speech organs are
closely related to
each other. To produce sounds,
the speaker has to
follow some processes
that employ speech
organs. By knowing
the process, hopefully the
non-native speakers are
able to produce
English sounds easily
and correctly
a. Speech Sounds Production
How can we produce speech? In this
section we will study the production of speech sounds from an articulatory
point of view in order to understand better subsequent sections about vowel and
consonant sounds.
Trujillo (2002:1) It must be said
that speech does not start in the lungs.
It starts in the brain and it is, then, studied by Psycholinguistics. After the
creation of the message and the lexico-grammatical structure in our mind, we
need a representation of the sound sequence and a number of commands which will
be executed by our speech organs to produce the utterance. So, we need a phonetic
plan of and a motor.
After this metal operations we come
to the physical production of sounds. Speech, then, is produced by an air
stream from the lungs, which goes through the trachea and the oral and nasal
cavities. It involves four processes: Initiation, phonation, oro-nasal process
and articulation.
1.
Initiation
Process
Kristo (2005:11) In
order to produce sounds, a body of air must be set in motion, it must vibrate —
this vibration is what we call a wave of sound. In most cases — and always so
in E and Hu this body of air is provided by a pulmonic egressive airstream
mechanism. Don’t be frightened of this scientific-sounding expression, it means
something simple. The term airstream mechanism refers to how the air is set
into motion in order to produce sounds; pulmonic means ‘of the lungs’, and
egressive means ‘outward going, leaving’. Altogether, this whole expression
refers to the fact that speech sounds are produced by using the air coming out
of the lungs. This first stage in the process of sound production setting the
air in motion is referred to as the initiation process.
Helgason (2014:2)
defines 3 airstream mechanisms
used in world
languages: pulmonic (involving lungs),
velaric (involving velum
and tongue) and
glottalic (involving glottis and
larynx).
a)
Pulmonic
(Involving Lungs)
1)
Pulmonic Egressive Airstream
Friction made with a
pulmonic egressive airstream is by far the most commonly occurring turbulent
source in imitations, just as it is in
speech. As is the case with speech sounds, a turbulent friction noise can be
made at many places in the vocal tract. This type of friction is especially
common in the imitation of “basic” sound events, such as the interaction of
solids (e.g. knock-ing, scraping and squeaking sounds) and sounds of gases in motion (e.g. blowing, puffing and hissing
sounds). For example, the impression
given by an improvisational actor of the sound of “scraping on a hard surface”
is quite speech-like and can be described as a voiceless ve-lar fricative [x].
2)
Pulmonic
Ingressive Turbulence
While pulmonic ingressive friction is not difficult to produce, it is difficult
(or impossible) to produce sibilant fricatives with an ingressive airstream. In
other cases, although appreciably different, the acoustic result of ingressive friction is
still quite similar acoustically to the egressive counterpart. These facts
may contribute to its
apparent scarcity in imitations. However, one should note that
ingressive friction is encountered in emotive sounds, e.g. sucking in air
through one’s teeth to indicate pain
b)
Velaric (Involving
Velum and Tongue)
1)
Velaric
Egressive Turbulence
A velaric egressive
source has not been encountered in the exploratory data, but one can conceive
of such sounds being used to imitate sputtering in liquids. Squeezing a velaric
airstream out be-tween the teeth, for example, may faith-fully replicate the
sound of a spraying can (although, obviously, this depends on
denture). An ingressive airstream leads to an acoustically similar
result.
2)
Velaric
ingressive turbulence
Velaric ingressive
turbulence is used to produce click sounds, which are typo-logically rare. Still, paralinguistic click sounds are
encountered quite frequently in speech for example, the dental click even has a
more or less standardized orthography, variably written as tut-tut or tsk-tsk.
Airflow is
generated by trapping
air inside the
oral cavity. This
is done by closing the back of
the tongue against the velum and the lips or the front of the tongue against
the upper teeth/alveolar ridge/ palate. By pulling down the body of the tongue,
the volume of
the enclosed region
is expanded and
a vacuum is created. Finally, the closure at the front
is released. Velaric ingressive sounds are called „clicks‟. In English, some
click sounds are used paralinguistically: e.g. the kissing sound (bilabial
click), the „gee up‟ sound (alveolar click) etc.
c)
Glottalic (Involving Glottis and Larynx).
1)
Glottalic
Egressive Turbulence
Glottalic egressive
friction is fairly common in languages, but as yet unat-tested in our
exploratory data of imita-tions. Possibly, the acoustically similar outcomes of
glottalic and pulmonic egressive friction are a contributing factor why use a glottalic airstream when a pulmonic
airstream creates, more or less, the same sound?
2)
Glottalic
Ingressive Turbulence
Voiceless glottalic ingressive
speech sounds (i.e., voiceless implosives)
are phonologically distinctive in less than 1% of the world’s languages. Judging by this typological rarity one could assume that such sounds are fairly difficult to produce. The
exploratory data have not yet yielded
imitations that make use of a
glottalic ingressive airstream, as such. English speakers sometimes use a voiceless velar implosive [ƙ] to
imitate the “glug-glug” sound of pour-ing liquid from a bottle (the voiced counterpart can also be
used). Thus, despite the typological
rarity of such sounds, they still seem to be used in imitations.
2.
Phonation
Process
The phonation
process occurs at the larynx.
The larynx has
two horizontal folds of
tissue in the
passage of air;
they are the
vocal folds. The gap
between these folds is called the glottis. When glottis is closed no air can
pass. Or it can have
a narrow opening
which can make
the vocal folds
vibrate producing the “voiced
sounds”. The examples of voiced sounds are: [b], [g], and all vowels. Finally,
when the glottis can be wide open, as in normal breathing, thus the vibration
of the vocal folds is reduced, producing
the “voiceless sounds”, for example a plosive such as [p], [t], and [k].
Kristo (2005:11)The
body of air leaving the lungs does not in itself produce any particular effect (this
is what happens when you breathe out). In order to produce speech sounds, the
air must be modified while leaving the mouth. Those organs that perform this
task are called speech organs. The first speech organ in the path of the air
leaving the lungs is the larynx, also called
Adam’s apple, where the vocal
cords (also called vocal folds) are found. When simply
breathing, the vocal cords are apart, letting the air pass through the larynx
freely. The vocal cords, however, can be pushed close together, in which case
the air passes through them, making them vibrate. The effect of this vibration
is one of the most important features of speech production: voice. Languages
use both voice and the lack of it in the production of speech sounds. If the
vocal cords vibrate while the given speech sound is articulated, the sound is
voiced; if not, it’s voiceless. This second
stage of sound production whether voice is produced in the larynx or not is
called the phonation process.
3.
Articulation
Process
The articulation
process takes place
in the mouth
and it is
the process which speech
sounds are distinguished
from one another
in terms of
the place where and
the manner how
they are articulated.
In other word,
the people can distinct the oral cavity, which acts as a
resonator, and the articulators, which be
active or passive:
upper and lower
lips, upper and
lower teeth, tongue
(tip, blade, front, back) and roof of the mouth (alveolar ridge, palate
and velum).
b. Organ of Speech
1) The
Respiratory System
The respiratory
system comprises the
lungs, the diaphragm,
the bronchial tubes, pharynx,
and trachea. The
main function of
this system is breathing. Lungs are
the main organ
for respiration. Lungs
provide the energy source
of airstream to
create speech sound
and to organize
speech sound. Lungs are the initiator in initiation, so
most sounds called pulmonic sound.
J. Tu et al (2013: 16) The respiratory system can be separated into regions based on function or anatomy. Functionally there is the conducting zone (nose to bronchioles), which consists of the respiratory organs that form a path to conduct the inhaled air into the deep lung region. The respiratory zone (alveolar duct to alveoli) consists of the alveoli and the tiny passageways that open into them where the gas exchange takes place. Anatomically, the respiratory system can be divided into the upper and lower respiratory tract. The upper respiratory tract includes the organs located outside of the chest cavity (thorax) area (i.e. nose, pharynx, larynx), whereas the lower respiratory tract includes the organs located almost entirely within it (i.e. trachea, bronchi, bronchiole, alveolar duct, alveoli).
2) The
Phonatory System
The phonatory system is formed by the larynx. Larynx is a fairly rigid box made up of cartilages, situated at the top of the trachea and continuous with it so that all air passing in and out of the lungs must pass through it. Inside the larynx are the first of the structures which can interfere with the air stream, named the vocal cords. The primary function of the larynx is to convert the energy into audible sound.
3) The Articulatory System.
The articulatory
system consists of the nasal
and the oral
cavity. The nasal cavity is
like violin body; its contribution to speech is a matter of resonance. If, with
the vocal cords
vibrating, the soft
palate is lowered
so that the
pharynx and nasal cavity
and oral cavity
are connected, the
whole mass of
air in the connected cavities vibrates with a
characteristic nasal effect. The oral
cavity considered the
most important of the three
cavities because it is the most variable in dimensions and shape. The oral cavity consists commit to users of lips,
teeth, tongue, palate
and lower jaw.
The oral cavity
can be divided
into two parts based
on the function:
articulators and place
of articulation. The function of articulators is to transform
the sound into intelligible speech.
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